Development of Lexical Bundles in Pakistani ESL Learners’ Academic Writing across CEFR Levels: A Corpus-Based Study

Abstract

This study investigates the development of lexical bundles in Pakistani ESL learners’ academic writing across B1, B2, and C1 proficiency levels of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Lexical bundles are recurrent multi-word sequences that support fluency, coherence, and rhetorical organization in academic discourse. Using a corpus-based approach, the study examines three-word and four-word lexical bundles in argumentative essays written by Pakistani ESL learners. The analysis focuses on bundle frequency, structural patterns, functional categories, and developmental movement across proficiency levels. The findings indicate that B1 learners rely mainly on basic and repetitive bundles, often connected with personal stance and simple textual organization. B2 learners show a transitional pattern, with greater use of discourse-organizing and explanatory bundles that help in argument development. At the C1 level, learners demonstrate more controlled and academic use of lexical bundles, including patterns associated with evidence, interpretation, and formal academic expression. The study shows that lexical bundle use develops gradually with language proficiency and reflects learners’ growing ability to organize ideas in academically acceptable ways. The findings have direct relevance for ESL writing instruction in Pakistan, particularly for curriculum design, writing pedagogy, and corpus-informed teaching of academic phraseology.